This module explores how we encode, store, and retrieve information—and how those processes can sometimes fail us. The experiments below reveal just how complex and fallible our memory systems can be, from forgetting names to remembering things that never happened.

🧠 Experiment 1: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve – How Fast We Forget (1885 – Hermann Ebbinghaus)

What happened?
In the late 1800s, Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted self-experiments by memorizing lists of nonsense syllables and testing how well he remembered them over time. He discovered that memory retention drops steeply right after learning, then levels off—a pattern now known as the forgetting curve.

Why it matters:
This foundational research shows that memory loss follows a predictable pattern and can be influenced by repetition, spacing, and rehearsal. It laid the groundwork for much of what we know about forgetting and studying effectively.

Related Topics: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval, Rehearsal, Spaced Practice

🎥 Watch: The forgetting curve [2:47]

Source: McGill Teaching and Academic Programs (TAP). (2022, November 10). The forgetting curve [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UpAq9EZpL5A

🔍 Experiment 2: Loftus and Palmer – Memory is Malleable (1974 – Elizabeth Loftus & John Palmer)

What happened?
Psychologists Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer showed participants a video of a car crash and then asked questions using different words (e.g., “smashed” vs. “hit”). Those who heard “smashed” estimated higher speeds and were more likely to recall broken glass that wasn’t there.

Why it matters:
This study demonstrated the misinformation effect: memory can be distorted by the wording of a question or by new information introduced after the event. It has major implications for eyewitness testimony and legal proceedings.

Related Topics: Suggestibility, Reconstruction, Eyewitness Memory, False Memories

🎥 Watch: EYE WITNESS TESTIMONY - Loftus & Palmer (1974) Car Crash Experiment [7:27]

Source: Psychology Unlocked. (2022, February 16). EYE WITNESS TESTIMONY - Loftus & Palmer (1974) Car Crash Experiment - Cognitive Psychology [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-tbwrUYqytQ

👁️‍🗨️ Experiment 3: Sperling’s Partial Report Technique – Sensory Memory (1960 – George Sperling)

What happened?
In the 1960s, George Sperling flashed a grid of letters on a screen for a fraction of a second and asked participants to recall them. While they couldn’t report all letters, they could report a row if cued immediately after the display. This revealed the capacity and limits of iconic memory.

Why it matters:
Sperling’s work helped define the sensory memory stage in the information-processing model. It showed that we momentarily register a large amount of information, but it quickly fades unless attended to.

Related Topics: Sensory Memory, Iconic Memory, Attention, Information-Processing Model

🎥 Watch: Iconic Memory (Sperling, 1960) [10:38]

Source: Dan Boyll. (2016, October 25). Iconic Memory (Sperling, 1960) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ACddnsfgJ7I

🌀 Experiment 4: The DRM Paradigm – False Memories (1959, 1995 – James Deese; Roediger & McDermott)

What happened?
In this experiment, participants hear a list of semantically related words like “bed, rest, tired, dream…” but not the word “sleep.” Later, many confidently recall hearing “sleep.” This is known as the DRM effect (Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm).

Why it matters:
The study shows that our brains don’t store perfect recordings—we store constructive memories based on meaning. The DRM paradigm illustrates how even confident memories can be wrong, especially when they fit a theme.

Related Topics: Constructive Memory, Semantic Networks, False Memory, Recall vs. Recognition

🎥 Watch: How Good Is Your Memory? | The DRM Paradigm & False Memories [6:28]

Source: MindfulThinks. (2020, July 1). How good is your memory? | The DRM paradigm & False Memories [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4RtMr9tevaY

Memory is not a perfect recorder - it’s a dynamic, malleable system shaped by attention, emotion, and meaning. These experiments help us understand how memory works, why it fails, and how we can study smarter.

🌟 Tip for Students: As you explore these experiments, consider how your own memories can be shaped by suggestion, repetition, and time. Use these studies in your assignments to show the power - and the pitfalls - of human memory!